HISTORY SUMMARY FOR FDR & JEWISH REFUGEE INCIDENT and KAMIKAZE PILOTS Essay

HISTORY SUMMARY FOR FDR & JEWISH REFUGEE INCIDENT and KAMIKAZE PILOTS - Essay Example Roosevelt was one of the few men during his time who understood what has happening and looked for ways to defeat Hitler and put an end to the Holocaust. The Roosevelt administration did everything possible to save the Jews and the victims of the Nazis. Rosen reveals in his book that President Roosevelt, in spite of the Great Depression wherein a lot of Americans lost their jobs after the stock market crashed, widespread American isolationism, strict immigration legislation, and extensive Semitism which then prevailed in America, did not abandon the Jews; he led the Allies in war against Hitler and the Nazis which cost fifty million lives. President Roosevelt also maintained close ties with many Jewish leaders, many of whom he appointed to high-level positions which include the Supreme Court. During the weaker periods of his presidency, he made many attempts to allow Jewish refugees to enter the United States. While the Holocaust was happening, there was clamor in America to remain ne utral regarding European affairs and distrust anything that had a tinge of internationalism. The American Jews were also divided with regard to coming up with the best policy for freeing their fellow Jews from the Nazis. Many accusations were thrown at President Roosevelt for the way he handled the Holocaust and Rosen considers these to be unfair. One of these accusations involved the SS St. Louis, a shipload of German Jewish refugees which was turned away from Cuba and denied permission to dock in the United States. The SS St. Louis left Hamburg in May of 1939 before World War I broke out or before the Final Solution was imposed. The Final Solution began when Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941. Cuba refused to let the German Jewish passengers leave the ship because they had bough visas which were considered illegal under Cuban law. The United States government under Roosevelt immediately acted on the problem. Rosen explains how the Roosevelt administration tried to convince C uba to permit the Jews to enter and even went as far as bribing the Cuban government to allow the passengers of the ship to enter Cuba. Rosen also made mention of the efforts FDR’s people to arranged for the ship’s passengers to be taken in by England and by other European countries and avoid being returned to Germany. The Jews were aware that the Americans had saved them. Rosen also said that the Roosevelt administration found difficulty in making an exception in U.S. immigration policy. This was due to the fact that a lot of Americans had feared the increasing wave of immigrants who mostly created trouble such as the anarchists who bombed Haymarket in Chicago in 1886, those who gave rise to violent, radical, and revolutionary labor movements, and the Polish anarchist who assassinated President William McKinley in 1901. The Roosevelt administration was also accused of failing to denounce the Holocaust. Because of this FDR was thought of as having been part of the cons piracy of silence while the Holocaust was happening. According to Rosen, there was no such conspiracy and that FDR did not keep silent while millions of Jews died at the hand of Hitler and his Nazis. As a matter of fact, Roosevelt expressed his outrage over the way Hitler treated the Jews. He thought that Hitler was insane.

Integrated Reporting Framework Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Integrated Reporting Framework - Essay Example However, it was not until 1999 that the UK developed a framework which it described as – ‘Statement of Principles for Financial Reporting’. Both frameworks were based on work done in US, Canada and some other countries (Dyson 2007). Before that time the bases for financial reporting were various rules and custom and standards which were mainly ‘fire-fighting exercises’ (Dyson 200?). The USA, however, was much earlier in developing a conceptual framework in the 1970’s. This framework was also developed out of a number of crises over the years which led to the creation of the Securities and Exchange Commission in the United States in 1934 under whose charge the FASB falls. Subsequently, there have been additional crisis in the United States especially that which led to the Sarbanes Oxley Act 2002. This Act has laid down certain requirements for companies listed on the stock exchange. All these have one objective – the protection of stakeho lders, while minimising the differences in reporting by companies. The IFRS framework deals with the objectives of financial statements, the qualitative characteristics that determine the usefulness of these statements, the definition, recognition and measurement of the elements from which they are constructed, and the concepts of capital and capital maintenance (BPP 2009, p. 36). They form a common basis on which financial statements are repared, thus creating a basis for discussion. These frameworks have provided guidelines in relation to disclosure of information, measurement, recognition and presentation of financial statement components. This means that company executives have to abide by these guidelines if they want their auditors (assurance providers) to indicate that their financial statements show as true and fair view. This has helped to constrain the freedom of company executives. Harmonisation and convergence projects There have been frequent calls for harmonisation and this has borne some fruit with over 100 countries accepting the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) with additional countries such as Canada being one of the most recent adoptees (Sungard 2011). According to PricewaterhouseCoopers (2011, p. 3) as a result of mergers and acquisitions through business dealings with non-US customers and vendors IFRS continue to affect US companies. This has led to the convergence project for a conceptual framework which is a joint project between the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) the preparers of IFRS and Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) the preparers of US GAAP. The objective of the project is to develop an improved conceptual framework as a basis for developing accounting standards in the future (Financial Accounting Standards Board n.d.). All these are aimed at making financial statements that have been produced in different countries more comparable. Additionally, investors will feel more secured and con fident in the information provided in the statements. The Need for Integrated Reporting The frameworks provided by various accounting bodies though undergoing continuous revision have not been able to keep up with the pace of changes in the global environment. Investors and other stakeholders find themselves being short changed by insufficient disclosure, an inability to link the figures provided in the

Report of food industry in India Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Report of food industry in India - Essay Example its of food, development of the human resources, supporting the research and development and the creation of the development of infrastructure and also the promotional measure that is adopted for encouraging the growth, development and processing of the food sector. The food processing has been considered as the large and the important sector for covering various activities which includes the horticulture, animal husbandry, agriculture, plantation and the fisheries. The government of India and the ministry of food processing has included the following items or the segments that is included in the food processing industry are processing of grain, fisheries, dairy , vegetables and food processing, the consumer foods which mainly comprises of the beverages ,packaged drinking water and foods and the processing of meat and poultry. In recent years it has been observed that India has experienced a substantial modification and development in the consumption, production and trade that is car ried out in the Indian agricultural sector. In the year 2000 it has been observed that India has experienced the growth rate in terms of the value that is related to the export of marine products, tea, sugar and rice. India is carrying high value of exports of various traditional commodities which includes coffee, tobacco, sugar and rice. The organized food sector of India constitutes to around 30%. The highest proportion or the share in case of the organized food in India is mainly contributed by the poultry and the meat segment. The macroeconomic environment in case of India provides a wide and diverse area and opportunities towards the growth and development in the industry and this contributes towards the development of the national economy. The food processing industry in India accounts for 32% of the food market in India. The food processing industry in India is one of the largest and is ranked fifth in terms of production, consumption and export. The total estimated value of

Integrated Technology Systems Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Integrated Technology Systems - Assignment Example Response time, hysteresis, long-term stability, sensitivity are some of uncertainties. Traceability of measurements from sensors is achieved through the implementation of regional calibration programs specific to each parameter or instrument. All sensors should have long term stability of measurements to guaranty maintenance and calibration intervals of one year or more. Temperature is the specific degree of coldness or hotness as referenced to a specific scale. A temperature sensor is used in detecting changes in physical parameters such as output voltage or resistance that correspond to the temperature change. Thermocouple is built from two electrical dissimilar metals are place at one end of a circuit. Thermocouple circuit has the most considerable temperature range when compared to other temperature sensor technologies, that is –200 to +2310Â °C. Thermistor is temperature sensor that proportionally changes its resistance in relation to temperature changes. Thermistors are of two types: negative temperature coefficient (NTC) and positive temperature coefficient (PTC). PTCs have positive change in resistance with temperature rise, while NTCs have negative change in resistance when temperatures increase. RTDs (Resistive Temperature Devices) embrace a change in electrical resistance in measuring or controlling temperature. A typical RTD has a sensing element, and connection wires to measurement instrument. RTDs are resistance devices hence generate their own heat that adds up to medium being measured. Shields/Screens that house temperature sensors affect quality of measurement of atmospheric temperature. Hence these shields/screens should reduce the effects of atmospheric and environmental factors (such as solar radiation, wind, dew). The sensors for soil temperature are configured at depth of up to 100 cm in undisturbed soil. The

Coffee and Starbucks Essay Example for Free

Coffee and Starbucks Essay Starbucks has been the most successful coffee chain using their aggressive expansion strategies to surpass its competitors. Through its expansion, Starbucks has focused on creating a dense network of stores all around US, while also opening up new locations all around the world. However, Starbucks’ aggressive expansion strategies have posed major threats to its financial health such as tight cashflows, increase debts, poor liquidity ratios and etc. In addition, this approach can exacerbate competition among close Starbucks stores. Due to the aggressive expansion, Starbucks has lost its internal focus in its core business coffee and its unique â€Å"Starbucks Experience – third place†. The issues are how Starbucks can stay profitable in the future and at the same time sustain its dominant position in the gourmet coffee industry. We have examined the industry analysis that focuses on the industry trends, the firm competitive environment and followed by a SWOT analysis on Starbucks. Finally, we look at the company strategy analysis that focuses on the Starbucks’ strategic intent and its strategic position. From these analyses, we recommend a few options where Starbucks should pursue moving forward in order to avoid further decline and sustain its dominant position. .:Company Background History:. Starbucks Coffee, Tea and Spice was established in 1971 by Jerry Baldwin, Zey Siegel and Gordon Bowker in Seattle to sell roasted coffee beans and coffee machines. (See Exhibit 1 for timeline) At that time, the founders’ philosophy was to provide high quality coffee and educate the public the art of appreciating fine coffee. It was the founders’ passion and strong commitment on educating the public that attracted Howard Schultz to join Starbucks in 1982 as the head of the marketing department, overseeing the company’s retail stores. On one of his business trips to Milan, Italy, Schultz stumbled upon an opportunity to revamp Starbucks and shift its focus from its original business activities. Schultz’s new business proposition for Starbucks was to serve freshly brewed coffee at their outlets which he sold to the founders without success. After many unsuccessful attempts, he left the Company. In 1987, Schultz acquired Starbucks from the founders and changed its name to the more abbreviated ‘Starbucks’ and modified her logo to what we see today. After the acquisition, he introduced the idea of ‘The Starbucks experience’ to all Starbucks’ outlets; that is to create a comfortable atmosphere for patrons to relax. From then on, every Starbucks outlet was the perfect duplicate of this concept. In 1992, Starbucks had launched an IPO and its common stock was being traded on the Nasdaq. In 1995, Starbucks venture overseas and formed a joint venture with SAZABY Inc to open Starbucks stores in Japan. In 1996, Starbucks first oversea outlet was opened in Tokyo. Today, Starbucks has a total of 7,087 Company operated stores and 4,081 License stores in US. Additionally, it has 1,796 Company operated stores and 2,792 Joint Venture and License store operating in other 43 countries. .:Definition of the Industry, Competitors and Scope of Analysis: Generally, Starbucks is in the Food and Beverages industry. However for the purpose of this paper, we would define Starbucks to be in the gourmet coffee industry with the following competitors : †¢Coffee Bean and Tea Leaf; †¢Costa Coffee; †¢Caribou Coffee. (See Exhibit 2 for a brief write up on reasons for the choice of these competitors and some background information of them) For the purpose of this paper, our analysis will be focusing on Starbucks in US and Australia. The next section provides an overview of the gourmet coffee industry and the competitive environment in US and Australia. .:Overview of the Industry:. .:Political Forces:. Generally both the US and the Australia political situation appeared to be well established and stable. This will provide a good platform for both current businesses and new businesses to operate in. In US, despite the current verge of recession, the political mood is still likely to favour increased regulation of businesses. In addition, even though international tensions are likely to remain but their impact on political stability and economy will remain minimal. Similarly in Australia, the political climate is likely to remain relatively stable. Although the relationship between the federal government and the states had been rocky in the past; it has improved after the introduction of a more stable formula for revenue distribution..:Economical Forces:. US: Real economic growth is expected to slow from an estimated 4% in 2008 to 3. 8% in 2009. The modest slowdown reflects the impact of lower demand from its trading partner. As these exists imbalances in the economy and the poor short-term outlook for growth, it is assumed that conditions in the US are now recessionary and that growth will remain very weak in 2009. This will in turn affect the GDP and the disposable income of its residents. Australia: Traditionally, rapid growth in Australia has been slowdown recently due to recession. Improved monetary and fiscal management have reduced macroeconomic volatility, but risks and imbalances are present. The low domestic savings rate renders the banking system dependant on foreign financing. The current account deficit is large, and international financial markets may start to worry about the underlying causes. Bubble conditions also seem to exist in the housing market. .:Socio-cultural Forces: Consumers’ Perceptions and Disposable Income:. US: There had been an increase in coffee consumption in the US market though the rate had slowed down in 2005 posing threats to coffee retailers. Recently, US consumers had increasingly opt for healthier hot drinks such as tea and RTD beverages which affect coffee consumption rate. The trend is likely to continue, leading to decline in coffee consumption. Australia: Coffee sales had experienced quite lukewarm growth from 2000 to 2005. The culture of cafe had caused more people to opt for on-trade sales coffee at the cafe instead of home-brewed coffee. According to BIS Shrapnel, people increasingly tend to go to cafes for their coffee and there is an increase of 50% within 2 years in coffee consumption. .:Technological Forces: Technological Developments:. Technological changes have created many new products and processes. It helps to reduce costs, improve quality and lead to innovations which in turn benefits consumers as well as organizations. Many organizations in the gourmet coffee industry had recognized the importance of providing wireless internet access and Wi-Fi hotspots to its patrons. These technology advances had created a leisure place for patrons to surf net or hang out after home and work. Most of the organizations had also introduced automated coffee machines to speed up the brewing process so as to shorten waiting time. To further improve business operations and efficiency, some organizations have also make use of information technology systems to help them run their businesses more smoothly. .:Environmental Forces:. With major climate changes occurring due to global warming, many organizations in the gourmet coffee industry had increased their environment awareness by reduced the usage of disposable cups to serve coffee and increased the use of ceramic mugs. Furthermore, the organizations had also reduced the size of their paper napkins, paper bags and in store garbage bags. The organizations were also encouraged to purchase Fairtrade certified coffees so as to promote responsible environmental and economic efforts. The following section presents our analysis of gourmet coffee industry with the aid of Michael Porters 5 Forces model. .: Analysis of Gourmet Coffee Industry- Porter 5 Forces:. Please refer to exhibit 3 for the criteria used for the scoring of each forces and an analysis of each forces. Force #1: Threat of New Entry:. †¢Threat of new entry is high. †¢High start up cost involved in purchasing equipments, sourcing for coffee beans and training barista. †¢Strong brand identity leading to high switching cost for consumers Score: 10 Force #2: Threat of Substitutes:. †¢Substitutes are gourmet coffee of a different brand †¢Current gourmet coffee industries is saturated †¢High switching cost †¢Threat of substitutes considered to be relatively high Score: 6 Force #3: Bargaining Power of Suppliers:. †¢Majority of commercially available coffee beans come from a few industrializes countries. †¢Increase the cost of coffee houses in sourcing and gaining access to these high quality coffee beans. †¢Bargaining power of suppliers is relatively high Score: 5 Force #4: Bargaining Power of Consumers†¢Bargaining power of customers is relatively neutral. †¢Current player gained brand loyalty †¢Product differentiation helps to retain current customer and attract new customers. †¢However price sensitive customers might seek for cheaper alternative. Score: 0 Force #5: Rivalry between Competitors:. †¢Intensity of rivalry is moderate. †¢Brand identity and high switching cost is relatively unfavorable to new player that has just entered the market. Score: 3. Conclusion:From the above analysis, we noted that the threat of new entry, the bargaining power of the supplier and threat of substitutes are relatively high. On the other hand the bargaining power of the consumers is neutral and the intensity of rivalry is moderate. Hence from the above analysis we concluded that even though there is high intensity of rivalry in this industry it is still considered to be attractive. This is because, according to report from Mintel, there is still potential for growth in the coffee industry as the number of coffee houses in US itself had increased by 70% from 200 to 2005. .:Key Success Factors:. The key success factors in the gourmet coffee industry includes: -ensure product quality by applying the highest standards of excellence to the purchasing, roasting and fresh delivery of coffee; -provide a cozy atmosphere where people relax and chill out; -recruit passionate people who love coffee and equipped them with skills to provide upscale customer service; -reduce customer waiting time by implementing many innovations to speed up the process; -accelerate innovation in producing products of a much superior quality than that of its competitors; and -locate stores at high traffic, high visible locations.

United States Cuba Relations And The Economies Politics Essay

United States Cuba Relations And The Economies Politics Essay Economic sanctions can be and are a valuable tool for enforcing international norms and protecting our national interests. The U.S. Policy of applying economic pressure in Cuba originated soon after Fidel Castro came into power in 1959. The United States first imposed a full trade embargo on Cuba on February 3, 1962, after the Kennedy Administration became convinced that Castro was moving rapidly toward the establishment of a totalitarian regime in alliance with the Soviet Union. Castro had not only confiscated U.S. and other Cuban and foreign-owned properties on the island, but had been providing indiscriminate support for violent revolution throughout the Americas as part of his efforts to carry on the continental struggle against the Yankees, which he considers to be his true destiny. The embargo was formally begun by President, John F. Kennedy, and has been supported by all successive Presidents. The U.S. embargo has had a major impact on the Cuban economy involving trade, wages, and jobs; and in addition, it has affected many United States businesses both directly and indirectly. The Helms-Burton Act is one of the major bills regarding trade with Cuba, and it has encountered much opposition and controversy both in the United States and abroad. Only recently was the news media ban in Cuba lifted allowing American journalists to get news from within Cuba. Health care in Cuba is also a major concern and is strongly affected by the Cuban Embargo. Our policy on Cuba is illustrative of one of the principal goals of economic sanctions-to encourage our friends and allies to adopt policies that can advance our common interests. Our allies and trading partners disagree with our embargo and have urged us to alter the provisions of the Libertad Act, also known as the Helms-Burton Act named after its principal sponsors. Cubas economy is in complete disarray as a direct result of Castros insistence on adhering to a discredited economic model-that of communism. The impact of the U.S. embargo was offset during the Cold War years by five to six billion dollars in subsidies a year from Russia. The economic problems in Cuba were exacerbated by the demise of the Soviet Union. The U.S.S.R. annually gave nearly five billion dollars in subsidies to the Castro government. However, the communist regime dedicated a bulk of these funds to maintaining an over-sized military machine and to a massive internal security apparatus. With the collapse of the Soviet Union, Cuba suffered a 35% decline in its gross domestic product between 1989 and 1993 (see chart), revealing an inherently dysfunctional economy. Food shortages and failure to provide basic public services incited disturbances that began to threaten the regime. In order for the communist government to survive, they had to undertake certain limited economic reforms because of these problems coupled with the continuing embargo. In the mid-1990s, the Cuban government began to allow private citizens to offer certain services under strict government scrutiny. Then in 1997, they introduced heavy taxes that forced many of these people out of business. In this sector, employment peaked at 206,000 in 1996, and then fell to 170,000 in 1997. The Cuban government has actively encouraged foreign investment, but forbids private investment by Cuban citizens, leaving it hostile to private enterprise. Not until 1993, did the Cuban government make it legal for Cubans to possess U.S. dollars. Since then, it has become the major currency. Failure by the communists to launch major economic reforms has fostered the development of a large black market and vividly growing corruption. Those with access to dollars can purchase imported goods at government-run dollar stores. To earn dollar tips, many skilled persons, such as doctors, teachers, engineers, and scientists are working in more remedial jobs in restaurants or as taxi drivers. Nevertheless, the Cuban government has not employed any credible effort to adopt market-based policies and continues to keep tight control over the highly centralized economy. Over 80% of the work force are employed by the state. To encourage a democratic transition in Cuba, Congress passed the Cuban Democracy Act (CDA) in 1992, which tightened the embargo by prohibiting American owned or controlled subsidiaries located abroad from doing business with Cuba. The sanctions will also have an unanticipated indirect effect on the American economy too. In addition to the immediate impact of sanctions on trade with the target, Cuba, many American businesses will suffer. American businessmen claim that the effects of even limited unilateral trade sanctions will go well beyond the targeted sectors. They also argue that the effects of such action will tend to linger long after the embargo is lifted because U.S. forms will come to be regarded as unreliable suppliers. Exports lost today may mean lower exports after the sanctions are lifted because U.S. firms will not be able to supply complementary parts, replacement parts, or related technologies. These indirect effects may extend beyond the sanctioned products and even beyond the time period in which the sanctions are imposed. Jobs in the export sector of the economy tend to pay better than the average wages. Thus even in the full employment economy that the U.S. is enjoying now, the loss of exports still means a loss in wages-the export wage sector premium. The export sector wage premium is about 12 to 15 percent, taking into account both direct and indirect employment. In 1995, the average salary in the manufacturing sector was about $34,020, so the premium paid by the export sector was about $4080 per worker (12% of $34,020). What these figures mean is that, as a consequence of U.S. sanctions, workers probably lost between $800 million and $1 billion in export sector wage premiums in 1995. In some periods in the last two decades, when the U.S. economy was not flourishing with full employment, and when jobs were not readily available, the loss of these exports may have added to the unemployment rolls. But even if the loss of exports had a zero effect on unemployment, it certainly reduced the number of good paying jobs. If the next twenty years see similar applications of sanctions in the United States, the cumulative loss of wage premiums could be around $20 billion (20 years times roughly $1billion a year). This is a heavy cost for us, and does not even take into account less tangible costs like making U.S. companies seem unreliable as suppliers and handing over business to foreign competitors. U.S. businesses are alarmed by the proliferation of trade sanctions by federal, state, and local governments and are pushing for legislation making it harder to use commerce as a weapon in international disputes. USA*Engage and its 632 businesses and organization members argue that unilateral trade sanctions rarely work, and often, they do backfire and have a bad affect ion American interests. Most of the analysis of the effectiveness of economic sanctions suggests they have limited utility for changing the behavior or governments of target countries. Previous research at the Institute for International Economics concluded that US sanctions had positive outcomes in fewer than one in five cases in the 1970s and 1980s. Much less is known about the costs of economic sanctions for the U.S. economy. Foreign investment in Cuba has failed abysmally to meet the regimes own expectations. Many of the countries that had committed investment hardly reached what they had actually promised (see chart below). Originally targeted at $500 million per year when new measures to attract foreign investment were introduced in 1990, the three-year investment total (FY 90-91 to 92-93) barely reached $500 million. For thirty years, the United States had a media ban restricting the media from having outposts in Cuba. American news bureaus were closed down in Cuba in 1969 when Castros government expelled the last members of the Associated Press who had been operating in the country. Almost thirty years later, in February 1997, President Clinton stated that ten news organizations would receive licenses allowing them to resume operations in Cuba. The decision to lift the news media restrictions came at a time when questions concerning relations with Cuba began to cause policy rifts between the United States and our European allies. Despite this minor concession made by the White House concerning the media networks, the policies of the Clinton Administration remained avidly anti-Castro. Clintons main intentions concerning Cuba are to promulgate democratic reforms in the government and bring an end to four decades of communism in Cuba. During Clintons first term in office, he signed into law, a bill that imposed sanctions on any country that chose to do business with the Castro government, the Helms-Burton Act. Our European allies argued that the law was an attempt by the United States to control the foreign policies of other countries. And they vowed to challenge the law before the newly formed World Trade Organization (WTO). After Cuban fighter jets shot down two passenger planes without warning in February 1996, President Clinton showed no hesitation in signing this bill into law. Part of his intentions were to send Cuba a powerful message that the United States will not tolerate further loss of American life, as Clinton stated himself. The bill targets companies doing business in Cuba in an attempt to block crucial international investment sought by the Cuban government. It allows Americans to sue companies that profit from the property the Cuban government has confiscated in the past 35 years, a stipulation many U.S. allies have shown opposition for. One of the major reasons for the imposition of the embargo was the Cuban Governments failure to compensate thousands of U.S. companies and individuals whose properties, large and small, were confiscated after the revolution. They specifically targeted and took property owned by U.S. nationals. Under the Cuba claims programs in the 1960s, the U.S. Foreign Claims Settlement Commission certified 5,911 valid claims by U.S. nationals against the Government of Cuba. The Castro government also took property from thousands of Cubans, some of whom have since become U.S. citizens. Under the law, any person who makes use of property confiscated from Americans by Castros government can be denied entry into the United States. Cuban-American Representative Ileana Ros-Lechtin, R-Florida, said the bill will penalize those who have become Castros new patron saints: the foreign investors who callously traffic in American confiscated property in Cuba to profit from the misery of the Cuban worker. The bill also urges the president to seek an international embargo against Cuba, but currently, no other economic power observes an embargo. Cuba doesnt seem very concerned though. The main victim of this law will be the United States itself, said Paul Taladrid, Cubas deputy minister for foreign investment, because it will have to face the opposition of the r est of the world, or its closest allies. Although many U.S. allies oppose parts of the policy, they have said that they agree with us on the key goal of encouraging democracy and human rights in Cuba. Even when supporting Cubas resolution at the UN General Assembly against the U.S. embargo of Cuba, The European Union made clear its opposition to Cubas human rights policies. The best known and most controversial parts of the Act are Title III and Title IV which created a private cause of action in U.S. Courts and prohibits visas and entry into the United States to those who traffic in confiscated property claimed by a U.S. national. The provisions extend well beyond Americas legal reach. These provisions prompted the European Union to initiate a complaint against the U.S. in the World Trade Organization (WTO). Canada and Mexico called for consultations under the provisions of NAFTA. Many think that the Act is a misguided principle; critics claim that it attempts to undermine the regime of Castro by depriving him of hard currency. This is futile, not only because the U.S. finds itself alone in its policy of isolating Cuba; although sometimes a lonely policy may be the right one. Both Canada, the biggest investor in the island country, and the European Union are still poised to retaliate against the United States. American allies reject the idea of making foreign policy under threat of lawsuit. Although the United States has such a problem with other countries not backing the embargo, an embarrassing example is still extant. After the foundation of the state of Israel, an Arab boycott penalized foreign firms for doing business with the new state. America rightly opposed this policy; now it must prepare to reverse itself. U.S. allies in Europe and Latin-America are livid over Helms-Burton; by what right, they ask, do U.S. Courts presume to impose sanctions against foreigners doing their own business in Cuba? Several of these countries have passed counteracting laws allowing their citizens to sue in their courts if Helms-Burton cases are brought against them in the United States. All this does is leave a potential legal rats nest benefiting nobody but the lawyers. Helms-Burton in section 306(b) gives the President authority to suspend the provisions allowing lawsuits against traffickers for successive periods of six months if he finds that such a step is necessary to the national interests of the United States and will expedite the transition to democracy in Cuba. President Clinton has already exercised this option several times to appease the dissention from our allies. We have been able to manage this serious disagreement with our close allies and trading partners and advance the promotion of democracy in Cuba. Under Secretary Eizenstat reached an Understanding with the EU in April 1997 under which the EU agreed to suspend its WTO case and step up its efforts to promote democracy in Cuba. The parties also agreed to negotiate disciplines on property confiscated in contravention of international law, including property in Cuba, and principles on conflicting jurisdictions. These discussions are in a crucial phase and, if an agreement is reached, the Administration will discuss with Congress the possibility of obtaining authority to waive Title IV of the Act. There is a large body of misconceptions about the present state of health care in Cuba, including the false accusation that it is the U.S. policy to deny medicine or medical supplies and equipment to the Cuban people. The end of Soviet subsidies forced Cuba to face the real costs of its health care system. Unwilling to adopt the economic changes necessary to reform its dysfunctional economy, the Castro government quickly faced a large budget deficit. In response, the Cuban Government made a deliberate decision to continue to spend money to maintain its military and internal security apparatus at the expense of other priorities including health care. In 1995, Cubas imports totaled $2.8 billion dollars, yet only $46 million dollars only 1.5% of overall foreign purchaseson medical imports for its 11 million people. By comparison, Cubas neighbor, the Dominican Republic, spent $208 million dollars on medical imports for its 7.5 million citizens in 1995. The US embargo does NOT deny medicines and medical supplies to the Cuban people. As stipulated in Section 1705 of the Cuban Democracy Act of 1992, the U.S. Government routinely issues licenses for the sale of medicine and medical supplies to Cuba. The only requirement for obtaining a license is to arrange for end-use monitoring to ensure that there is no reasonable likelihood that these items could be diverted to the Cuban military, used in acts of torture or other human rights abuses, or re-exported or used in the production of biotechnological products. Independent non-governmental organizations, international organizations, or foreign diplomats can perform monitoring of sales. Since 1992, 36 of 38 license requests have been approved to U.S. companies and their subsidiaries to sell medicine and medical equipment to Cuba. Sales have included such items as thalamonal, depo-provera, pediatric solutions, syringes, and other items. The Department of Commerce declined the other two requests for licenses it received for failure to meet legal standards. Both of these exceptions to the general policy of approving commercial medical sales occurred in 1994. Moreover, the U.S. embargo on Cuba affects only U.S. companies and their subsidiaries. Other nations and companies are free to trade with Cuba. Should Cuba choose not to purchase from the U.S., it can purchase any medicine or medical equipment it needs from other countries. Such third-country transactions only cost an estimated 2%-3% more than purchases from the U.S. as a result of higher shipping costs. In closing, the essential element of the tragedy of the Cuban people is not the United States-Cuba conflict; rather, it is the struggle of eleven million people who seek to assert their human dignity and reclaim the inalienable political, economic and civil rights that were taken away from them by the Castro regime. The Cuban people have been victims of one of the most oppressive regimes of the twentieth century. The systematic violation in Cuba of each and every human right recognized in the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights has been faithfully documented in recent years at the UN Human Rights Commission and by respected human rights organizations throughout the world. The truth is there for all that wish to see. Impervious to the deplorable living conditions of the people, the asphyxiating lack of liberty, and to repeated international calls for democratic change, Castro staunchly clings onto the reins of absolute power. Yet, despite the regimes relentless repres sion, those on the island are courageously demonstrating their commitment to change with increasing resolve. The U.S. economic embargo against the Castro regime has weakened its capability to repress this universal desire for freedom and is an expression of moral support that strengthens the will of those who seek to wrestle from the hands of a dictator the destiny of a whole nation.

Body Shape and Gender

Body Shape and Gender Body Shape and Gender differences in ratings. Introduction Body image is the way people perceive themselves and equally important, the way they think others perceive them. Body image is constantly changing, and is always being modified by biological growth, trauma, or decline. It is also significantly influenced and moulded by life circumstances which bring about pain or pleasure. There are many factors that influence how people perceive their own body image and others. Factors such as culture have a significant influence on perceptions of body images. As people tend to compare their self to what is acceptable within their own culture, and see if they match the standard of others. Although, womens perception of the ideal body shape, is a thin one. Delameter 2004 stated that attraction is characterised as an attitude, which consists of feelings beliefs and behaviours, whether it is a positive or negative one is dependant on the persons perception of the individual. Socio cultural theory The sociocultural theory is a perspective that presents the idea that human behaviour is affected by cultural influences. It highlights the important of cultural values in understanding how individuals are perceived by others and how they perceive themselves. In relation to body image and attractiveness, the sociocultural perspective would offer the idea that if the culture deems attractiveness to be important and is admired within its members, then individuals within the society will value attractiveness in themselves as well as others, and the same idea would apply if the culture deems attractiveness to be of less importance then the members of the society would then not look into the importance of attractiveness within themselves or others. Within the socio cultural theory there are three approaches which help to explain the role of physical attractiveness in everyday life. The first theory being the social expectancy theory, this theory argues that cultural values influence perceptions of others and the behaviour, which in turn influences the behaviour of others which then has an impact on the self perception of others. The â€Å"self fulfilling prophecy† is the sequence of events that happens in order for people to make judgments on others, which are based on the other personss and expectations, and then the individual is led to believe they are as the perceiver expected them to be. An example of this in relation to body image, if a shop assistant was helping a customer chose clothes and had to fetch the customer clothes without asking for their size, and kept bringing back larger sizes. The customer may then begin to think that as the shop assistant perceives them to be larger that they are actually much large r and if such events occurred over a number of times the customer would then believe it to be true over a period of time. There are many hypotheses that derive from the social expectancy theory such as: There is a consensual agreement within cultures about who is attractive and who is not attractive, but variability among cultures. There are consensual expectations within cultures about attractive and unattractive others, but variability among cultures. People behave differently toward attractive and unattractive others. Peoples differential behaviour toward attractive other results in differences in how they respond. These behavioural differences result in differences in the elf-concepts of attractive and unattractive others. There is very little research looking into the reasons why attractiveness is valued, or why some faces and body characteristics are considered attractive and others are not. The next approach descending from the socio cultural theory is the implicit personality theory. This approach focuses on the knowledge structure that people use to make sense of their social world, which is to understand and predict the behaviour of others. Implicit theories are conceptualised as cognitive structures that consist of personal attributes an inferential relations that specify the degree to which attribute are related. An example of the attribute â€Å"intellectual† might be expected to go well with the attribute â€Å"studious† rather than the attribute â€Å"nervous†. Implicit personality theory provides a framework for understanding the physical attractiveness stereotype. The category label physically attractive is presumed to be linked to a variety of attributes; the number and nature depend on the culture. Cultural information is transmitted through direct observations of attractive others and by exposure to cultural representations of attractiveness. However, the theory does not explain why different cultures associate different attributes with attractiveness. The final theory to stem from the social cultural theory is the status generalisation theory which has evolved from sociological theories. The theory suggests that external status characteristics are used to generate expectation states regarding performance, with or without prior association between these characteristics and performance and with or without conscious awareness. Status generalisation theory views physical attractiveness as a â€Å"diffuse† status characteristic because if discriminates among individuals and establishes performance expectancies â€Å"without-limit† that is, without regard to the actual relevance of attractiveness to performance. From the status generalisation perspective, physical attractiveness should be associated with a wide range of desirable attributes in both perceptions of others and self perceptions. Similarly, like the social expectancy theory and implicit personality theory, the status generalisation theory predicts that people hold more positive expectations for attractive than unattractive others. All three theories predict that people behave more favourably towards attractive than unattractive others, and that more favourable treatment results in more favourable self-concepts for attractive people. The socio cultural perspective, states that culture defines what an attractive body is and self perceptions of body attractiveness depend on these cultural definitions. The closer body self perceptions comes to the ideal, the higher the self rating should be of body attractiveness. Therefore, body image should depend on cultural ideals and on how an individual perceives his or her own body in relation to these ideals. This also, suggests that culture is an important issue which frames certain individuals perception on their body image, and perception of others. Research following the socio cultural perspective has been found to suggest that body ideals vary among cultures as well as within cultures across groups and time. Present-day Western cultures idealise thinness for females and an average type for males. The thin ideal for women replaced the more full d one of the 1950s, and may soon be replaced by† fitness â€Å"ideal that began to emerge in the 1990s.) Evolutionary theory â€Å"The evolutionary theory argues that for the existence of universally shared criteria of attractiveness, which are cues to a persons potential reproductive success† Buss (1999) according to this theory, females are believed to select partners that will enhance their reproductive success, and the biological features are deemed to be found more attractive. It is stated that the biological features are â€Å"to honestly signal that one individual is more â€Å"desirable† then another† Buss 1999. Culture Within many different cultures there are different standards of what attractiveness is, and there are a wider range of acceptable weights and shapes. Within the â€Å"white† Western culture female attractiveness consists of a slender body shape. Slenderness is generally associated with happiness, success, youthfulness and social acceptability. Over weight for both men and women has been seen as physically unattractive and is also associated with other negative characteristics. Research from Bordo (1993) found that excess flesh started to become linked with low morality, reflecting personal inadequacy or lack of willpower. Slenderness symbolises being in control, which in turn is seen as an attractive feature. The firm toned body is seen as representing success. Most people do not have slim, toned bodies, so they have to work towards fitting in with the norm of society. Bordo states that the current idealisation of slenderness is that the body is kept under control â€Å"The ideal here is of a body that is absolutely tight, contained, bolted down, firm† (Bordo 1993: 190) In a study by Tiggemann and Rothblum (1988) asked a large number of students about their stereotypes of fat and thin men and women. They were asked to rate the extents to which eight qualities were typical of thin men and women and fat men and women. Men and women in both cultures reported negative stereotypes if fat people. Although, fat people were seen as warmer and friendlier, confirming the traditional stereotype of the fat jolly person, they were also viewed as less happy, more self indulgent, less self confident, less self disciplined, lazier and less attractive than thin people. These judgements were marked of fat women than fat men. The results indicate negative stereotyping of fat people, especially fat women. Tiggemann et al stated that from the findings they found â€Å"there were no differences in stereotyping between students who were fat and those who were thin. Even those who were overweight had negative stereotypes of fat people† Dion researched the link between attractiveness and positive personal qualities. He stated that â€Å"What is beautiful is good† Dion et al 1972: 285). Dion stated that people tend to assign more favourable personality traits and life outcomes to those they perceive as attractive. More recent supporting evidence came from Eagley (1991) suggested that the effects of physical attractiveness stereotypes are strongest for perceptions of social competence. Negative stereotyping of overweight may be a specific aspect of the physical attractiveness stereotype that refers specifically to assignment of negative traits to those who have a body size and shape that is not considered attractive by dominant groups in western cultures. It is often assumed that womens obsession with weight is linked with their desire to be attractive, to men, but research from Fallon and Rozin (1985) disagrees with this idea. They conducted an experiment which consisted of participants were shown line drawings of women ranging from extremely thin to extremely fat. It was found that women chose their ideal as thinner than what they believed men to prefer and this is more evident to be done in adolescence Cohn et al (1987) which may have an impact on how women rate and judge other womens bodies, and levels of attractiveness. The societal pressure hypothesis states that, the thin standard of beauty seen in the mass media encourages women to strive for unrealistically thin Silverstein et al (1986). Whereas, in African cultures â€Å"black† females have described their standard of an ideal body on non body factors such as style of clothes, skin, ethnic pride and so on. The black community has a unique view of ideal weight and body size compared to white mainstream culture. Black women tend to support a larger and more moderate idea body size than the very thin ideal that is favoured by the white western societies. Also in contrast, to overweight white women, over weight black women are more likely to view their bodies as attractive. There is also less prejudice against overweight people amongst the African cultures. Jackson and McGill (1996) found that when black men were asked to â€Å"relate several descriptors with the term â€Å"obese† they were more likely to associate positive characteristics such as â€Å"attractive† and â€Å"generous† and less likely to state negative attributes such as â€Å"lazy† or â€Å"uneducated† compared to the opinions of white men. Similarly, black women were more likely than white women to relate â€Å"sexiness† with â€Å"obese† in regard to same race men.† This more tolerant and appreciative view of overweight and obese body sizes likely. Langlois 2000 most research on physical attractiveness dominates research on attractiveness as it maybe most accessible trait when first meeting someone. Whereas in Western societies Furnham 1983 found that there is an inverse relationship between high social class and low body weight, the inverse is true of less developed, non-Western societies. As it has also been shown that the longer immigrants have been in Western societies, the less obese they tend to be. This study examined how Kenyan Asian, British and Kenyan British females from similar backgrounds perceived female body shapes. As predicted, the Kenyans rated larger more favourably and smaller less favourably than the British. Also, as predicted, it was found that the Kenyan Asian British were more similar to the British group in their perceptions. The results support the view that social and cultural factors play dominant role in the perception of ones own and others body shapes. In addition, the results reveal that in Britain preferences for small body shapes to the point of being anorexic are not uncommon. WHR ratio It is difficult to state where fat is distributed and to comment on whether it is appropriate or inappropriate. Before puberty boys and girls have roughly the same pattern of fat distribution. However when puberty strikes, due to oestrogen, it causes fat to be placed around the hip area of the body. The affect on male bodies is that testosterone causes the body to distribute the fat around the abdominal region. The fat distribution is measured by the wait hip ratio (WHR). The WHR is obtained by taking an individuals waist at the narrowest point, and hip measurement, and then finding the ratio of the two measurements. The WHR is a reliable index of the distribution of fat between upper and lower body according to Leibel, Edens and Fried (1989) also they stated that the loss or gain of 10 pounds doesnt appear to affect fat distribution. Healthy men typically have a WHR in the range of 0.85- 0.95 and for women the WHR is in the region of 0.67-0.80. In relation to attractiveness, it has become apparent that over the years the female has become more curvaceous over time. Later studies have looked mostly at select groups of women such as playboy centrefolds and Miss America contestants. Based on data from these populations, researchers have hypothesised that the female body shape is moving away from an hourglass shape and becoming curvier. This would indicate that women when rating bodies and their perception of them should favour the curvier shapes. However, when Singh (1993) re-examined the same data using the WHR, it was found that despite a reduction in total body weight, WHR has remained fairly stable at the measurement of 0.68-0.72 over the years. These ratios are still very indicative of an hourglass form. If women had a very curvaceous body shape their WHR would approach 1.0. Although, attractiveness does change over time, and these issues should be considered when men and women are rating body shapes for attractiveness as it may affect the scores they give. However, it does appear that the relation between a small waist and attractiveness has remained fairly similar. Mostly, western societys trends have been for women to exaggerate the smallness of this feature with a few exceptions, an example of this comes from periods such as the flapper period; where waist lines were eliminated. Research by Morris 1985 showed that in this â€Å"flapper† period women went to high levels of extremes to fit in with the small waist preference, and had their lower ribs removed. A narrow waist is often a preferred and†¦. Singh 1993 research found that both male and female subjects have the ability to use the WHR by itself to make judgements about womens attractiveness and other features which suggests that body shape is a very important variable, which should implicate that WHR is an important feature when body perceptions are made. Within Singhs study he allowed participants a 12 line drawing of female bodies, which four different WHR ratings. These images were also split into three body sizes of underweight, normal or overweight. , participants were then shown all images, and asked to rate the attractiveness of each in order. Participants were also asked other questions to group the images in certain groups. The results from this study found that participants can make discriminations about images, based on weight and WHR. The results also found that participants preferred women with lower WHR and found them more attractive than the higher WHR. The normal weighted were rated higher whereas, the unde rweight and overweight images were perceived as being less attractive. Singhs study implies that female attractiveness is associated with low WHRs, and that fat distribution is more important than body weight when determining attractiveness. Singh also stated that a small WHR was gender specific, so a low WHR is more favoured when the image people are presented with to rate are females have a low WHR. Male images with low WHRs are judged as least attractive no matter what their weight category is. Research by Palwlowski and Grabarcyk 2003 conducted research into WHR, and investigated the difference within WHR and the different components that are a part of WHR dimensions. They looked into the hip size and the waist size. In order to state which asset is more important when males are rating female attractiveness they conducted an experiment whereby participants were presented with a series of photographs where the WHR had been altered with, in either the hip or waist area. It was found that attractiveness was correlated negatively with WHR especially when it was manipulated. Although, some research by Tassinary and Hansen 1998 has suggested that hip size is more influential than waist size. In many traditional societies, living in relatively poor conditions, where fat reserves in hip and thigh regions may be important as an energy source during pregnancy and lactation, as it may be expected that there could also be a preference for wider hips. On the other hand, in modern societies; where there is no risk of having not enough food and where there are resources for financially poor mothers, resources are given to support them. Therefore, men may be harsher judges about waist size. Although, Tovee et al 1999 found that weight was more important than WHR when participants were judging womens attractiveness. Anorexics Body perception may differ between anorexic people, research by Furnham et al 1994 studied three groups of anorexic females, teenagers and mature adults, all participants were shown male and female body images which ranged in body size; from thin to fat. The participants were then asked to rate them on four categories using a 10 point rating scale. It was found that both anorexic and teenage groups rated the thinner women as more attractive than the mature females. Both mature and teenage females rated the fat female body shape more positively than did the anorexics. This study design was altered in the experiment that was conducted. Influential research Swami and Tovee (2005) researched the cues that are perceived to influence rating female attractiveness, which were bass mass index (BMI) and waist-to hip-ratio (WHR). This study examined the relative contribution of both cues in two different cultures; British and Malaysian. Both cultures were asked to rate the females images where BMI and WHR was presented with the image, and asked to rate the attractiveness of the image. The results showed that BMI is an influential factor whereas, WHR doesnt emerge as a predictor, which suggest that the WHR doesnt have any major impact when rating images for levels for attractiveness. Thornhill and Grammer 1999 used real images of women and this study also found that BMI is strongly correlated with attractiveness than is WHR. Swami, Salem, Furnham Tovà ©e (2008) criticise standard research into ratings because they often use ratings of unrealistic drawings of women. They developed a scale using real photographs of women the photographic rating scale (PFRS), taken from the front view and wearing a neutral costume. The PFRS was designed to overcome many of the limitations associated with line-drawn that are currently in use, including a lack of realism and poor ecological validity. Based on a sample of 208 adult women, the results of the study showed that the PFRS had good validity in that all images were correctly rank-ordered by BMI. Marlowe, Apicella Reed (2005) criticised standard research on this topic from a different angle they said that WHR has only been evaluated using front-on , where WHR involves waists and hips of varying comparative sizes. They created a scale of in profile and varied how large the s buttocks were. They concluded that womens actually vary regarding where the fat is deposited in some cultures (e.g. USA) it tends to be deposited on the hips (and is favoured/disfavoured there) whilst in other cultures (e.g. Tanzania)it tends to be deposited on the buttocks (and is favoured/disfavoured there. Smith, Cornelissen Tovee (2007) also had something to say about where fat is distributed and how different this can be from person to person. This prompted them to conduct a study using real womens bodies, where participants were shown many angles around the 360 degree spectrum. it appears that cardiovascular fitness may be a weak cue, at least in bodies not undergoing cardiovascular exercise. Instead, it seems that more salient cues, such as body mass and skin tanning, are the primary determinants of attractiveness judgements. The current study has been inspired by a popular news article in the Mail Online, which presented a range of 12 body shapes, including â€Å"Pear†, â€Å"Skittle† and â€Å"Goblet† (Trinny Susannah, 2007). This news article acknowledged the varying places where body fat can be distributed on the female . The current study intends to vary the positioning of body fat deposits and the amount of body fat, to test whether it is only WHR that affects raters judgements or other elements of body fat distribution. This will be accomplished using artificial widening and narrowing of three photos, to produce three sizes for three shapes being tested. It is anticipated that Differences in judgements between males and females and between body sizes are expected, as found in previous research. However, it is also anticipated that there may be some interesting differences in ratings depending on where body fat is distributed. It is expected that top heavy distribution of fat may be more unfavourably rated than bottom heavy or equally distributed body fat across all body sizes tested. However, there may also be interaction effects, for example, with only minor body shape differences for the narrower , yet greater body shape differences for the wider . There may also be an interaction between gender and these issues (e.g. males may be more discerning about body shape than females, or may be more discerning than females about body shape for some body sizes and not others). The hypothesis that arises from the previous research that has been discussed is: To investigate if there is a relationship between the different types of body shapes and the perception of body image between different genders. If there is an effect within altered body shapes and between gender overall. Method Participants A total of 180 participants were recruited at random from social networking website to take part in the online questionnaire. Most participants were selected from the university social network so the participants consisted of a range of individuals studying different courses. The participants age ranged from 18-25 with a mean of 21.5. An equal gender split sample was selected to participate. The participants were randomly assigned to a questionnaire, each questionnaire required 20 participants to take part in the study. 10 males and 10 females were randomly chosen to complete each the questionnaire. Materials The materials used in this experiment were the questionnaire, which was created using an online service. A copy of the questionnaire can be seen in the appendix (see appendix?). The questionnaire results are then logged online. The results will then be analysed using the computer program SPSS. Each questionnaire contains 9 different images, consisting of 3 original images which were altered in size. The original 3 were pear, skittle and goblet body shapes which are the stimuli. Design The experiment will be analysed through a three-way ANOVA on the attractiveness ratings: a 2 (Gender: Male, Female) x 3 (Body Size: Narrowed, Original, Widened) x (Body Shape: Pear, Skittle, Goblet). The independent variable is the reaction to body image. This will be measured through a rating scale, whereby participants will be asked to rate the level of attractiveness of the picture they are presented with. The attractiveness ratings are the central concern of this study, with the other ratings appearing to help reduce demand characteristics. Although each participant will rate just one stimulus, between participants three body shapes and three body sizes will be rated. The dependant variable is the image that the participant will be faced with, and the gender of the participant. Procedure Participants were randomly assigned to participant and complete one of the 9 questionnaires. There were 9 different images altogether; each of the 9 questionnaires had a different image. After this had been created, 9 separate online groups were created on the social networking website, which participants were then randomly allocated a website to click on and complete the questionnaire. Once the participant had been randomly selected, a link was sent the participant to complete the questionnaire. Once the participant clicked the link they were presented with the assigned questionnaire. The participant was given a brief description and outline of what the experiment asked them to do, and once the participant agreed they continued through with the questionnaire. The questionnaire consisted of questions regarding the participants age and gender. Participants will be faced with one, female stimulus to rate, followed by four questions, which will ask them to rate the stimulus on: attracti veness, healthiness, success and popularity. The rating scale will consist of 1 being â€Å"definitely not† attractive and so on and 10 being â€Å"extremely† attractive and so on. After the participant had then completed the ratings they were then presented with a small debrief description, and once they had done so an option of whether their participation was still acceptable to go on and be analysed was offered and the results were logged on the online survey website. Ethics Ethical issues with this study were addressed sufficiently and followed the BPS ethical guidelines in line with the methods used. The biggest issue was of informed consent. The participants could not be allowed to know the end aim of the study to eliminate demand characteristics. This was addressed by a number of steps being followed: the subject matter will be made clear from the start and the task will be clearly explained. Also the responses will be entirely anonymous; and, in the debrief contact details will be provided for help and advice on any matters that may have distressed participants, and the participants will have the right to withdraw from the experiment at any time. Another issue that may occur is the issue of psychological harm to the participants, as the participant may feel inadequate when viewing the image and compare themselves against the image they are presented with too much. This issue will be addressed by a detailed debrief explaining that the images are a fi ctional image, to help lower the low self esteem that may arise. Also participants if given a questionnaire with the researcher present may feel pressured and may think that they themselves are being judged by the researcher about their body image, as the experiment is about this issue. However, this issue will be minimised as the questionnaire is online, and the researcher will not be present and the participant may answer the questions alone and not feel pressured by the researcher. Another, issue that may have been if the researcher had to be faced with the participant, is physical risk of the participants health which is deemed to be minimal; however this is primarily an online survey so that it will involve participants using their normal computing facilities. For the online recruitment, the participants and researcher will not meet face to face. However, Should additional face to face recruitment be required, it will take place in the public areas of the University in location s that both participants and researcher frequent in their normal daily lives. Other issues such as clinical interventions are not involved in the study and it is not expected to involve the University with any financial or legal risks. The Psychological risk to the researcher is considered to be minimal because the researcher understands the nature of the study and what is involved in both the subject matter and the data collection process. Results A three way ANOVA was used to analyse participants ratings. There are 3 main effects that could affect each participants results. However within these effects there maybe some interactions between these through a two way interaction: 1) Body size x Body Shape 2) Body size x Gender 3) Body shape x Gender. By comparing body size x body shape x gender this is looking at a three way interaction was made. The mean of all scores was 4.9944. After a Post Hoc analysis was conducted and the results from this test are shown below. The main effects of the results are as follows. The results show that the ratings of images were not significantly affected by the factor Body Shape. Main effect of Body shape [F (2, 162) = 0.523; p = 0.594]. The main effect of Body size was significantly affected the rating the participant gave: [F (2,162) = 10.702; p=0.001]. Also, both genders were significantly different when rating all body shapes when they were widened (4.08) compared with original (5.28) and narrowed scores (5.62). The type of body size the participant was faced with impacted on the attractiveness rating they gave. The main effect of gender was shown to be significant [F (2,162) = 7.254; p =0.008]. The main effect of gender overall, the means were significantly different the average rating given by males was 4.61, whereas, the female rating was 5.38, showing a significant difference between scores. Below is a table showing the means for each body shape and gender. The table indicates that there is a significant difference between the average score of Goblet (low WHR) ratings, which show that males rate the Goblet (low WHR) lower 4.20 than females 5.60. Below, are graphs showing the interaction between all three factors and there average, mean scores, and the differences between scores. This graph shows the difference between the scores given of body size, between males and females. The means of all scores are shown. The graph indicates that overall, in all three body sizes, females rated the image higher than males. The mean for widened images shows that males significantly in particular rated this image lower 3.53 than females 4.63 this is a significant difference. (See table 1) The graph shows the interaction between the mean scores of body shape and gender. Females rated the all body shapes higher than males. The biggest